Translating of proverb

Contents

Introduction…………………………………………………………………..3

Chapter I. Proverbs and their common features………… …………………5

1.1. Definition of proverbs………………………………………….……...5

1.2. Types of proverbs on meanings motivation . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . …......7

1.3. Proverbs as a phraseological unit………………………...…………….11

Chapter II. The translation peculiarities of proverbs……………………16

2.1. Translating proverbs with phonetic stylistic devices………………….20

2.2. Translating proverbs with lexical stylistic devices…………………...22

2.3. Translating proverbs with syntactic stylistic devices…………………25

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ….…...27

Bibliography . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … ………………….….28

INTRODUCTION

Folk was in all the times the biggest creator of beauty, witty and meaningful thoughts. Our ancestors were certain of the fact that the longest way around is the shortest way home, that a friend is never known till needed, or that there is nо place like home. People had expressed these true facts in proverbs, brief, memorable, and intuitively convincing statements of socially accepted advice. The majority of these statements got also an additional, metaphorical meaning. In order to make them more emotional people made use of meaningful epithets, metaphors, personifications, similes.

It is important to mention that nearly all cultures possess a repertoire of proverbs. They have been collected and studied for centuries as informative and useful linguistic signs of cultural values and thoughts. However, at a certain moment, these stop to be illustrations of the experience of a certain community. Proverbs influence and are also influenced by the culture of other nations. At the same time every culture has its peculiar national characteristics that are not so easy to render in other language. That is why the main aim of my course paper is to find out the difficulties that may occur in rendering stylistic devices of English proverbs.

The subject of my course work is devoted to the study of translating with different stylistic devices of proverbs in English language.

In the process of carrying out this research I intend to accomplish the following objectives:

• to determine the characteristic features of proverbs;

• to find out what stylistic devices can be used in proverbs;

• to specify the function of various stylistic devices and ways of rendering them in another language, namely in Kazakh.

The issue of my course paper was investigated by such linguists as V. N. Komissarov, S.Vlahov and S. Florin, V. S. Vinogradov, I. V. Korunets, but most of them dealt more with the rendering of idiomatic expression in general. Just a few materials are dedicated to rendering namely stylistic devices.

The novelty of my research consists in the fact that I will analyze what kind of stylistic devices is possible to preserve while rendering into other language and which stylistic devices are difficult to keep, whether it is possible to keep them intact or it is necessary to make some changes, whether the changes of stylistic device affects somehow the meaning of the original proverb.

The present research is interesting and up to date due to the fact that proverbs may be identified with a perpetual school of thinking, even if some people claim that they are on their way to extinction in highly developed societies. Of course, some proverbs have dropped out of use because their message or metaphor does not fit the times any longer. At the same time new proverbs or at least new endings that reflect the mores and situation of the present time are constantly added to the proverbial repertoire. Taking these into consideration we may affirm that proverbs are indeed alive and continue to play a significant role in the modern age.

More than that, together with the development of modern means of communication and the world tendency for globalization, proverbs are spread faster and are employed more frequently than in any other time. They are used not only in literary works or day by day life but also in mass media, advertising, political and business world. Bearing in mind these life domains, I consider that the correct rendering of stylistic devices needs a special attention from the translators and interprets while these are often involved in conveying of the meaning, in creating images that produce a specific effect.

The theoretical value of the course paper is to investigate the structural types of proverbs in English, to give their equivalents in related and related languages, to analyze and differentiate proverbs in investigated languages.

The practical value of this course paper is that, practical result and all the given examples can be used in practical lessons, writing compositions in colloquial and written speech. This work also can be useful to other students who are interested in this field as in this work there is given the table of the most often used proverbs in English.

The structure of course paper is as follows: introduction, main part, conclusion, bibliography.

The main part consists of two chapters. The first chapter, theoretical one, consists of three subchapters. And all subchapters are about definition of the word “proverb”, types and etc.

The second chapter is a practical one. As well as the previous chapter it includes three subchapters that differ according to the group of stylistic devices they deal with.

CHAPTER I. PROVERBS AND THEIR COMMON FEATURES

1.1. Definition of Proverbs

Proverbs are part of every spoken language and folk literature, originating in oral tradition. It represent a saying popularly known and repeated, usually expressing simply and concretely, though often metaphorically; a truth based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind . Often a proverb is found with variations in many different parts of the world that is why it is usually very difficult to trace the origin and history of a proverb in a particular language.

The term “proverb” dates the 14th century, being the modern variant of the Middle English “proverbe”. The roots of the Middle English term are to be found in Latin word proverbium formed out of the preposition pro meaning “for” and verbum, meaning “word”, in other words etymologically the English word means "in place (i.e. for) of words". Subsequently a proverb is usually a succinct statement that stands in place of a long explanation and expresses a truth about reality .

Matti Kuusi has given a concise etymology of the word «proverb» in different languages. In addition to the expressions “word uttered” or “word said”, it may also have the meaning of “a statement in support of something” (Welsh or Cymric), a “wise word” (Komi or Zyryan) or an “influential word” (Japanese).

Literate societies dating to the ancient times have collected proverbs. Dr. Thomas L. Constable mentions "The Book of Proverbs" that includes wise sayings of several different individuals, some of them belonging to Solomon, others to unnamed wise men (sages). The compendium includes proverbs copied from, or at least influenced by, earlier Mesopotamian and Egyptian books of wisdom. In the “Britannica Concise Encyclopedia” it is stated that one of the earliest English proverb collections, The Proverbs of Alfred, dates from с 1150–80. In North America the best-known collection is probably Poor Richard's, an almanac published 1732–57 by Benjamin Franklin.

W. Mieder , the foremost proverb scholar in the United States, divides proverbs into two types. On the one hand, there are proverbs that have the same meaning but different structures, vocabulary, and metaphors, and they consequently have different origins in their respective languages. Whoever needs to translate one of these texts would have to know the quite different equivalent in the target language or to find it in a dictionary.

On the other hand, according to Mieder’s opinion there are many proverbs that are identical not only in German and English but in most Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages of Europe, and these do not present any particular translation problem.

The definition of a proverb has caused scholars from many disciplines much dispute over the centuries. A. Taylor expressed even such an opinion that it is very difficult to formulate a definitive definition of these linguistic facts and that only intuition can help us to differentiate a proverb from other kinds of text: “The definition of a proverb is too difficult to repay the undertaking; and should we fortunately combine in a single definition all the essential elements and give each the proper emphasis, we should not even then have a touchstone. An incommunicable quality tells us this sentence is proverbial and that one is not.” I consider that A. Taylor is too categorical in its theory and that it is possible to sum the markers of the proverbial statements into a definition. I took into consideration the following definition attempts made by other linguists and paremiologists.

First of all I appealed to an explanatory dictionary in order to find the most common and comprehensible even for non-linguists definition. The Oxford Dictionary explains the term “proverb” as a short well-known sentence or phrase that states a general truth about life or gives a piece of advice.

I can depict from this simple definition three proverbial markers: their popularity, shortness, and the content that has to express a truth or advice. A similar definition is given by I. R. Galperin: “proverbs are brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas. They are usually didactic and image bearing” . Besides the features listed earlier I can found in Galperin’s definition the proverb’s quality of being abstract, in other words of being general, not confined to specific facts.

One of the most developed and precise definition attempts in our opinion is the definition given by W. Mieder : "Proverbs [are] concise traditional statements of apparent truths with currency among the folk. More elaborately stated, proverbs are a short, generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation.” Analyzing the definition given by W. Mieder I can depict the following proverbial markers: shortness, popularity and folkloric nature. Also he mentions that proverbs have metaphorical content and are easy to memorize.

Unlike W. Mieder who underlined the fixed form of proverbs, N. Norrick claims that in actual use, especially in the case of intentional speech play, proverbs are quite often manipulated. According to N. Norrick proverbs are definitely fixed only in the proverb collections; otherwise they can be used rather freely, even though the predominant way of citing them is in their unaltered entirety. In his essay he concluded: “for well known proverbs, mention of one crucial recognizable phrase [i.e., part] serves to call forth the entire proverb,” speaking of “this minimal recognizable unit as the kernel of the proverb”.

From these three definitions of the proverb I can conclude that the characteristic features of a proverb are: the shortness and popularity of the statement that illustrates a general truth, the metaphorical form, and the moralistic character. The fact that a proverb implies authority is reflected in many languages by the meaning of the corresponding natural term for it (i.e. the popular one, not introduced by researchers).

One more peculiar feature of proverbs is the fact that they are considered by linguists and paremiologists anonymous, i.e. of unknown authorship and origin. A. Dundes and E. Ojo Arewa wrote in one of their essays that the responsibility for contents of proverbs is projected on to the anonymous past, anonymous folk.

Linguists distinguish some specific varieties of proverbs . A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim (from Latin propositio maxima, i.e. “most important proposition”) or axiom (from Greek axios meaning “worthy”). If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good style, it may be known as an aphorism (from Greek aphorismos meaning “definition”).

G. Corpas Pastor affirms that proverbs belong to the category of multi-word units, i.e. lexical units composed of a minimum of two orthographical words up to a maximum of a whole sentence (either simple or complex). Several kinds of multi-word units can be distinguished according to their function and speech act status. G. Corpas Pastor distinguishes proverbs from this variety by claiming that a proverb should be a whole sentence, equivalent to a free utterance which is suitable to perform speech acts. Besides proverbs linguists distinguish different subgenres which are fragmentary and for the most part metaphorical phrases that must be integrated into a sentence. Acording to Wolfgang Mieder to these subgenres belong proverbial expressions, proverbial comparisons, proverbial exaggerations, and twin formulas.

1.2 TYPES OF PROVERBS ON MEANINGS MOTIVATION

Before starting this discussion, it might be wise to mention here at' least some of the English proverbs which in themselves are folk definitions of a sort: "A good maxim is never out of season"; "All the good sense of the world runs into proverb"; "Proverbs are the children of experience"; "Proverbs are the wisdom of the streets"; "Nothing can beat a proverb"; "Proverbs cannot be contradicted"; "Though the old proverb be given up. it is none the less true"; "The old saying cannot be excelled"; "The wisdom of the proverb cannot be surpassed"; "Common proverb seldom lies"; "The old saying, long proved true, shall never be belied"; "Old saws speak truth"; "Every- proverb is truth"; "Old proverbs are the children of truth"; "What everyone says is true"; etc. It appears that to the mind of proverb users, i.e. the general population in all walks of life, the proverb contains a good dose of common sense, experience, wisdom and above all truth. Do such "definitions" still hold true today, or do modern adults in a technological society see proverbs in a much more critical light? Are proverbs still considered to be solid kernels of wisdom and truth, or are they laughed off as antiquated bits of moral teaching? The following 55 recent definitions of proverbs might include some surprises when one considers that they come from members of a sophisticated and highly educated society. The definitions were collected by merely asking various people to write their definition of a proverb on a piece of paper without any previous discussion of proverbs whatsoever. They represent spontaneous reactions to the simple isolated question "How would you define a proverb?" Here are the fascinating answers in alphabetical order:

1. A proverb consists of a short sentence which contains a general piece of wisdom.

2. A proverb contains wisdom which has been handed down from one generation to the next.

3. A proverb describes situations which happened before and which are repeated again and again.

4. A proverb expresses folk wisdom in formulaic, short and metaphorical language.

5. A proverb has been passed down through many generations. It sums up, in one short phrase, a general principle or common situation, and when you say it, everyone knows exactly what you mean. It is often graphic, symbolic or rhyming, so that it is easily remembered.

6. A proverb is a common expression whose origin is not known or has been forgotten. It expresses wisdom concerning life.

7. A proverb is a common, repeated and generally known phrase which expresses a general idea taken to be true. It usually draws upon everyday occurrences or events in nature which are easily understood.

8. A proverb is a commonly-known, easily understandable example of descriptive, colorful, "folksy" wisdom, which, independent of the era, carries a lesson to and conveys a philosophy of life for the common man.

9. A proverb is a commonly-known, often-quoted, concise saying which expresses a generalization concerning some aspect of everyday existence.

10. A proverb is a commonly used or known phrase, expressing knowledge, a conclusion or an attitude about aspects of life that are universally familiar to mankind.

A word analysis of these definitions results in an interesting composite of what a general definition of a proverb might look like. Taking the frequency of nouns first, the following picture emerges (the number :n parentheses indicates how often a particular noun appears in the 55 definitions): wisdom; phrase; sentence, saying; statement; folk; situation; expression; life; truth, moral, people; generation,' experience, advice, lesson, word; principle, analogy, belief, behavior, meaning, action; language, generalization, attitude, message, opinion, picture, comment, thought, comparison, tradition, rule, viewpoint; origin, idea, occurrence, philosophy, knowledge, conclusion, prejudice, folklore, paradigm, threat, form, norm, nature, value, ideal, image, poetry, author, admonition, rhyme, alliteration, witticism, brevity, profundity, clarity, precision, culture, condition, concern. From this it becomes clear that a proverb is commonly thought of as "a phrase, saying, sentence, statement or expression of the folk which contains above all wisdom, truth, morals, experience, lessons and advice concerning life and which has been' handed down from generation to generation." This composite definition basically includes all those words that appear from 4 to 20 times in the collected definitions. But since the words phrase, saying, sentence, statement and expression simply define a proverb as a basic sentence, it can certainly be stated that the shortest general definition of a proverb is simply "A proverb is wisdom expressed in a sentence."

Looking at modifying verbs, adjectives and adverbs in the 55 definitions, the following frequency picture arises: short; general; known; common, teach, traditional; metaphorical; concise, fixed ; repeated, remembered, everyday, didactic; handed down, formulaic, true, understandable, often quoted, universal, moralistic, colloquial, memorial, learned, familiar, biblical, human; sum up, graphic, symbolic, rhyming, colorful, descriptive, old, linguistic, regional, pictorial, pithy, standardized, accepted, oral, poetic, parallel, precise, aphoristic, cultural, instructive, exemplary, small, allegorical. If one adds the 18 occurrences of "short" together with the 4 of "concise," the one of "precise" and the one of "small" it is clear that 24 or almost half of the definitions stress the shortness of the proverb. Adding to this a few more of the frequent descriptive words, a composite definition could be something like "A proverb is a short, generally known sentence that expresses common, traditional and didactic views in a metaphorical and fixed form and which is easily remembered and repeated." But again, the shortest common denominator for this group of descriptive words would simply1 result in the definition "A proverb is a short sentence."

There are several types of proverbs describe below:

Universal proverbs – On comparing proverbs of culturally unrelated parts of the world, one finds several ones having not only the same basic idea but the form of expression, i.e. the wording is also identical or very similar. These are mainly simple expressions of simple observations or simple ethical concepts, but not all expressions of simple observations became proverbs in every language.

Regional proverbs – In culturally related regions - on the pattern of loan-words - many loan-proverbs appear beside the indigenous ones. A considerable part of them can be traced back to the classical literature of the region's past, in Europe the Greco-Roman classics, and in the Far East to the Sanskrit and Korean classics.

Local Proverbs – In a cultural region often internal differences appear, the classics (e.g. the Bible or the Confucian Analects) are not equally regarded as a source of proverbs in every language. Geographical vicinity gives also rise to another set of common local proverbs. These considerations are illustrated in several European and Far-Eastern languages, as English and Korean.

Proverbs were always the most vivacious and at the same time the most stable part of the national languages, suitable competing with the sayings and aphorisms pf outstanding thinkers. In the proverbs and sayings picturesqueness of national thinking was more vivid expressed as well as their features of national' character.

The proverbs and sayings are the paper of folklore which is short but deep in the meaning. They express the outlook of the amount of people by their social and ideal functions. Proverbs and sayings include themselves the some certain features of historical development and the culture of people.

The semantic sphere of proverbs is very wide and cannot limit them. The proverbs describe the every branch of people's life. The fact is that proverbs and sayings are similar in meaning in spite of their diversity in form and language.

While investigating on the given qualification theme we have analused proverbs on the semantic point of view. We have come across on the following noticeable themes, such as Friendship, Motherland, Time, Knowledge, Beauty, Health, Work, and a lot other different subjects. We have classified some example on the given topics:

Friendship

1. A friendship in need is a friend indeed.

2. A friend's frown is better than a foe's smile.

3. Among friends all things are common.

4. Even reckoning makes long friends.

5. Who keeps company with the wolf, will learn to howl.

Motherland

1. East or West home is best.

2. Every bird likes its own nest.

3. There is no place like home.

4. Never cast dirt into that fountain if which you have sometimes drunk.

5. Don't cut the bough you are standing on.

Time

1. Time and tide wait for no man.

2. Time cures all things.

3. Time flies.

4. Time is money.

5. Time is wonders

Knowledge

1. To everything is to know nothing.

2. Soon learnt soon forgotten.

3. Live and learn.

4. It's never too late to learn.

5. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.

Beauty

1. All that glitters is not gold.

2. Appearances are deceptive

3. Handsome is as handsome does.

4. There is no rose without the thorn.

Health

1. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

2. A sound mind in a sound body.

3. Early to bed and early to rise makes a man health's, wealth's and wise.

4. Good health is above wealth.

5. Health is not valued till sickness comes.

Work

1. A bad workman always blames his tools.

2. A good beginning is half the worn.

3 A good beginning makes a good ending.

4. An attempt is not torture.

5. AH is well that ends well.

6. As you sow so you reap.

7. Chickens are counted in autumn.

8. Man proposes bad disposes.

9. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today

1.4 PROVERBS AS A PHRASEOLOGICAL UNIT

Proverb is a brief saying that presents a truth or some bit of useful wisdom. It is usually based on common sense or practical experience. The effect of a proverb is to make the wisdom it tells seem to be self-evident. The same proverb often occurs among several different peoples. True proverbs are sayings that have been passed from generation to generation primarily by word of month. They may also have been put into written form. The Book of Proverbs in the Hebrew Bible, or old Testament, is the most notable collection of such sayings. They include: Hope deferred month the heartsick.

A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches.

A soft answer turned away.

Pride goeth before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall.

Proverbs often find their way into literature. Hany of the lower-class characters in the Canterbury tales. By Geoffrey Chaucer refer to proverbs. Miguel de Cervantes' novel Don qui xote (1005, 1615) contains many proverbs. Cervantes collected the proverbs from the Spanish pea sands. The term itself phraseological units to denote a specific group of phrases was introduced by Soviet linguists and is generally accepted in our country.

Who supposedly could early on a sensible conversation for a whole evening in nothing but proverbs. Benjamin Franklin used many proverbial expressions in his Poor Richard's Almanac", issued every year from 1733 to 1758 Franklin wrote many of them himself, and took the rest from other sources.

Proverbs, Book of is a book o f the Hebrew Bible, or old Testament. It is also known as the Proverbs of Solomon because according to tradition king 'Solomon wrote it. However scholars believe that the book's assortment of moral and religious saying, poems and warnings come from various periods in the history of ancient form until after the period of the Babylanian Exile, which ended in 538 B.C.

The Book of Proverbs is a product of ancient Israel Children, were educated primarily at home. The introduction value of many sections of Proverbs reflects the teachings of parents trying to raise their children to become successful and responsible adults. Other sections of the Book of Proverbs may come from a palace school for the training of government officials.

The Book of Proverbs has earned universal appeal because it contains material valuable to all people who hope to live a life of wisdom, honesty, responsibility, for God Hany as the book's saying have become part of everyday Speech.

Proverbs were always the most vivacious and at the same time the most stable part of the national languages, suitable competing with the sayings and aphorisms pf outstanding thinkers. In the proverbs and sayings picturesqueness of national thinking was more vivid expressed as well as their features of national character. The proverbs and sayings are the paper of folklore which is short but deep in the meaning. They express the outlook of the amount of people by their social and ideal functions. Proverbs and sayings include themselves the some certain features of historical development and the culture of people.

The semantic sphere of proverbs is very wide and cannot limit them. The proverbs describe the every branch of people's life. The fact is that proverbs and sayings are similar in meaning in spite of their diversity in form and language. To prove the said above some examples:

A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.

Лучше синица в руках, чем журавль на небе.

Even if the form, the word structure and the stylistic structure of these proverbs are different they have the same meaning. The proverbs change their meaning and form very rare, they have long living features. The spreading of any proverb among people is implemented as slow as it is created. Proverbs are retest by geographic area which is going to admit it only after that the proverb can become its property.

Many scholars tried to do the researches to show the differences between proverbs and sayings in order to point out their border of limit. One of the outstanding Russian scholars the author of "dictionary of vivid Russian language" and "the proverbs of Russian nation" V.I. Dal wrote: saying is the bud and proverb is the fruit. So from this point of view we can see that proverbs express the full finite meaning and saying is a phrase which expresses the fugitive meaning. The sayings are considered to be the half part of the proverbs. We can also add that proverbs and sayings are separate genres which are different from each other. The meaning and explanation of these terms in Turkish language show that the semantically their meanings are various and this fact confirms our above given ideas. For example in the dictionary "o'zbek tilining izohli lug'ati" there are given two meanings. The first meaning is that it does not express complete meaning and it is emphatic phrase and wise words. This explanation can express the folk saying. Another meaning refers to Arab word "masal" that (in English means fable) was changed phonetically. The explanation can be used for emphatic phrase and incomplete meanings that is sayings.

There are some features that can be helpful in identifying the proverbs from sayings.

1.When there are tow logical counters became complete composition the brief summarizing thought appeared. That explains the lack of spare word or description.

2.To express the idea straightly and logically proverbs are characterized by their features. Every proverb values or appreciates any event both positively and negatively. Such kind of features serve to make the proverbs popular among people.

3.Proverbs express wise and complete idea and sayings express the description of something but do not give complete meanings. They consist of one compositional composition.

4.Proverbs can be used in neutral figurative meaning. This features of proverbs widen the sphere of their usage thematically. That's why proverbs are famous among different nations and people. Sayings are characterized by limited usage in one or two nations who are near to each other geographically and in non related languages. For example in Russian «заморить человека» means to eat something has no equivalent or component in Uzbek or English languages and translated by analogy. The same way of translation is used while translating such sayings as "qovun tushurmoq" and etc.

5.The sayings are the means of devices or pointing in speech the function of proverbs is to prove any event or situation.

In spite of their own specific features proverbs have general sides which also belong to the other types of folklore. One of such features of the proverbs is that they are created in language in a very long time and disappear in a long period. It is connected with the formal feature of the content of the proverb. To turn some wise thoughts into proverbs some conditions are required. And this conditions may be the followings: first of all the proverbs should describe the economic, social and politic life of the people. To the instruction to the dictionary of Dal, wrote that among all the proverbs which are closer and more important for them and reject those which are old and not suitable for them to build a new life. For example in Russian we can find the proverb "Где хан, там и Орда", "Старших и в Орде почитают"; these kind of proverbs can be considered as old ones and are not used in nowadays, because they do not describe the nowadays life and politics. But such kind of proverbs could be changed and said "Где царь, там и народ".

Secondary the idea expressed in the proverb must have global character. It means that those proverbs that describe the characters related to the human beings are the same in all the languages.

Thirdly the idea that can be used as sample and answers to the above conditions must be complete in literary Christianized form. When the pattern idea answers these three questions it turns to be a proverb. Also it should be pointed out that the character of immediate creation of proverbs are connected with sociable structure, the dominance and non dominance of politic, cultural, social - economic life. The content expressed in proverb changes depending on the change in. of social life.

It can be approved from the above mentioned proverb about "хан" and "Орда". It either widens or narrows and it gives completely another meaning. In this term we can see that second feature of the proverb is that it is connected with social life, and it is close to people's way of living.

Proverbs serve as rare base in researching or studying of people: the level of their cultural, politic, economic life in ancient time or periods. As proverbs reflect the life practice of people over different periods and also they reflect moral norms and religious faith of nation. One more feature of proverbs is that proverbs are often used in colloquial speech of people and are extended in varied forms.

CHAPTER II. THE TRANSLATION PECULIARITIES OF PROVERBS

Proverbs, like riddles, jokes, or fairy tales, do not fall out of the sky and neither are they products of a mythical soul of the folk. They are simple statements that contain an element of truth or wisdom and that are firstly used in a small family circle, and then in a village, a city, a region, a country, a continent, and eventually the world.

V. N. Komissarov views translation as a means of interlingual communication. In his opinion the translator makes possible an exchange of information between the users of different languages by producing in the target language (TL or the translating language) a text which has an identical communicative value with the source (or original) text (ST).

He truly mentions that the target text (TT, that is the translation) is not fully identical with ST as to its form or content. This fact occurs because of the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the source language (SL) and TL. Each language is not simply a classification of concepts, it has its own, specific way of articulating and organizing the word, that it is very difficult to render in other language.

In his theory of translation V. N. Komissarov claims that the structure of the translation should follow that of the original text: there should be no change in the sequence of narration or in the arrangement of the segments of the text. He states that the aim of a translator is to keep a maximum parallelism of structure which would make it possible to relate each segment of the translation to the respective part of the original. It is presumed that any breach of parallelism is not arbitrary but dictated by the need for precision in conveying the meaning of the original. But sometimes the “direct translation” is simply impossible.

S.Vlahov and S. Florin consider that the phraseological unities, both set expressions and proverbial expressions, represent the biggest difficulty of translation. Such units have an important role to play in human communication. They produce a considerable expressive effect for, besides conveying information, they appeal to the reader's emotions, his aesthetic perception, his literary and cultural associations. Whenever the author of the source text uses an idiom, it is the translator's duty to try and reproduce it with the utmost fidelity, trying to render both meaning and figurative language aimed for creating impression.

V. N. Komissarov reveals five aspects of phraseological expressions that influence the translator's choice of an equivalent in the target language. They are the idiom's figurative meaning, its literal sense, its emotive character, stylistic register and national colouring. The figurative meaning is the basic element of the idiom's semantics. It is closely connected with the stylistic devices, by means of which it is rendered.

In our opinion all these five aspects should be taken into consideration while translating idiomatic expressions in general and proverbs in particular.

V. N. Korunets as well as other linguists specifies some factors upon which in his opinion a faithful translation depends. Among them are the following: whether the idiomatic expression in the source language and in the target language is of the same/different source of origin; whether the idiomatic expression has in the target language only one, more than one or all componental images in common; whether the componental images, when translated, are perceived by the target language speakers; whether the structural form of the idiomatic expressions can be retained in the target language without any transformations and whether there exists an analogous/similar in sense idiomatic expression in the target language, etc.

Considering factors listed above, V. N. Komissarov describes four methods for handling a ST idiom in TL: to make use of a TL idiom which is identical to the SL idiom in all five aspects of its semantics; to translate the ST idiom by a TL idiom which has the same figurative meaning, preserves the same emotive and stylistic characteristics but is based on a different image, that is, has a different literal meaning; to reproduce its form word-for-word in TL or to try to explicate its figurative meaning, so as to preserve at least the main element of its semantics.

Similar methods are described by S.Vlahov and S. Florin . In their view the golden rule of translation is to translate an idiom by an idiom and while translating this approach should be considering in the first place. Roughly speaking they divide translating methods for phraseological units into two types: phraseological translation and non-phraseological translation.

The former type includes the first two methods mentioned by V. N. Komissarov. The first one S. Vlahov and S. Florin described as the translation by means of an equivalent, i.e. the phraseological unit in the SL should be equal with the phraseological unit of in the TL. The second method S.Vlahov and S. Florin call translation by means of variant or analogue, i.e. a similar but not equal phraseological unit. The latter type mentioned by S. Vlahov and S. Florin corresponds to the third and the last method described by V. N. Komissarov.

The first method proposed by V. N. Komissarov is in our point of view the hardest to keep to. This difficulty occurs because of the fact that the phraseological units of two languages are not identical equivalents. Even if the word choice coincides, their figurative meaning or emotive colour may differ a lot. Applying this method for rendering proverbs we may conclude that it will be suitable only in the case of so called “general European proverbs”, in other words proverbs that have their origin in Greek, Latin, or Bible and that were spread throughout of Europe by means of precise loan translation.

Thus proverbs like Love is blind and Strike while the iron is hot would be translated in Kazakh by means Махаббатта көз жоқ That proverb would have in all languages the same meaning: love makes one unable to see things as they really are and respectively one should take advantage of the proper timing, before it becomes too late .

The target language variants of phraseological mono-equivalents may sometimes slightly differ in their structure or in the order of words from the source language idioms, but these minor changes in the structural form, however, do not influence in any way the meaning and the expressiveness or picturesqueness of absolute equivalents in the target language.

Linguists consider this method of translating the most desirable, but sometimes the translator’s choice may be influenced also by the stylistic register of the text. So “European proverbs” that in the opinion of I. V. Korunets belong to higher stylistic levels can be not so suitable for a text written in colloquial style. In such a situation, the translator may apply the second procedure and use an analogue national variant.

In connection with the possible problems while translating an idiom by means of another one V. N. Komissarov mentions that a SL idiom can be wrongly interpreted because of another SL idiom similar in form and different in meaning.

In order to illustrate this problem we have chosen the proverb There is no smoke without fire that should not be confused with the proverb There is no fire without smoke. At the first sight these proverbs are equal, therefore they should have the same meaning. But it is not so. The proverb There is no smoke without fire would be translated in Kazakh like Жел тұрмаса шөптің басы қимылдамайды: everything has a reason, everything has a source.

At the same time the proverb There is no fire without rule the translation is presumed to represent what has been said by the foreign author of ST and he is not expected to use definitely national idioms.

In connection with word for word translation, V. N. Komissarov mentions that it can be applied only if reader of the target text will be able to deduce its figurative meaning. A similar idea is expressed by V. S. Vinogradov . He advises to avoid word for word translation if the original proverb contains a proper name or a cultural specific concept. At the same time V. S. Vinogradov considers that this method may be applied if in the author points to a proverb by means of an introductory expression such as: “as the saying goes”, “as the saying is”, “all know that”.

V. N. Komissarov states that the method of explaining the figurative meaning should be the last to be used. He mentions that an explication cannot reproduce the semantics of the SL idiom in a satisfactory way and should be used only in the absence of a better alternative.

The same advice gives V. S. Vinogradov . He calls such types of proverbs pseudo-proverbs. S. Vlahov and S. Florin as well as V. S. Vinogradov mention that using this method the translator should give their pseudo-proverbs the shape of a real proverb by means of alliteration, rhyme, parallel construction or other characteristic features. The best effect is achieved when the reader do not understand that this is an invented proverb.

According to V. S. Vinogradov translation of proverbs represents a peculiar problem namely because of the images they include. In his opinion the proverb’s originality consists in their duality of the meaning, the interaction between the original, literal meaning and the implied one, that is very difficult to preserve in translation.

Regarding this fact we consider that a special attention while rendering a proverb should be paid to stylistic devices it contains, because these very linguistic facts play a significant role in conveying the proverbs’ meaning or creating a specific image.

Speaking about handling stylistic devices V. N. Komissarov notices that coming across a stylistic, device the translator has to make up his mind whether it should be preserved in his translation or left out and compensated for at some other place. One of the most difficult to preserve is alliteration. It is widely used in proverbs, being one of their characteristic features. At the same time according to V. N. Komissarov this device cannot be reproduced in other language where it may look rather bizarre and often distort the meaning of the phrase.

On the other hand V. N. Komissarov states that the stylistic devices that are possible to preserve in TL are the stylistic devices based on various kinds of repetitions. Among these he mentions recurrence of the word, word combination, smoke implies the meaning “nothing good can exist without also a few bad qualities”.

As the previous example shows it often happens that the target language has more than one semantically similar/analogous phraseological expression for one in the source language. Regarding this situation I. V. Korunets mentions that the selection of the most fitting variant for the passage under translation should be based then not only on the semantic proximity of the idioms/ phraseologisms but also on the similarity in their picturesqueness, expressiveness and possibly in their basic linages.

V. N. Komissarov points out two things that a good translator should be aware of while using this method. First, here again the translator should take care to preserve the original emotional or stylistic characteristics. Second, this method of translation should not be used if the TL idiom is distinctly nationally marked. As a

phrase for two times or more. A particular type of repetition is the reiteration of several successive sentences (or clauses) which usually includes some type of lexical repetition too, in other words parallel construction.

According to V. N. Komissarov other stylistic devices that can be easily rendered in other language are metaphor and simile. He consider that in this case two approaches are possible either to preserve the initial image or to replace it with another one, that would sound more natural in the TL.

V. N. Komissarov as well as S.Vlahov and S. Florin consider that it is not so difficult to preserve the usage of proverbial comparison in the TL due to the fact that many cultures created the same associations related to certain concepts. Thus the quality of being light is associated with the concept of “feather”: in English as light as a feather, in Kazakh – Ұлпадай жеңіл. Similarly the quality of being cunning is associated with the concept of fox: in English as sly as a fox, in Kazakh - Түлкідей қу.

At the same time we cannot negate the fact that some comparison bear a specific national colouring that cannot be rendered in TL the same way as it is in SL. For this situation V. S. Vinogradov proposes to procedures: word for word translation and the replacement by other idiom that would be close in meaning. But according to V. S. Vinogradov the both procedures have negative elements.

We adhere to the opinion expressed by V. N. Komissarov and other linguists regarding the difficulties in rendering stylistic devices and will analyze more deeply this problem in the second chapter of the present diploma thesis, where we will determine whether it is possible to keep the original stylistic device or this thing is unattainable and it should be replaced with something else or even avoided. In addition we will discuss whether the change of stylistic device can affect somehow the meaning of the proverb.

2.1. PHONETIC STYLISTIC DEVICES

I. R. Galperin affirms that phonetic stylistic devices are a type of devices based on how a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds. In his opinion this kind of devices can be very often identified in proverbs because of the fact that lot of proverbs through their frequency of repetition have became polished and wrought into verse-like shape therefore they have rhyme, metre and alliteration that represent the characteristic phonetic stylistic devices for poetry. Often these stylistic are combined with each other.

Alliteration (also initial rhyme, beginning rhyme, head rhyme) is a frequently used poetic device; it is often discussed with assonance (the repetition of stressed vowel sounds within two or more words with different end consonants) and consonance (the repetition of end or medial consonants). Alliteration aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. Galperin defines this device as the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of consecutive words (sometimes also in words that are not next to each other). (Forgive and forget.). We consider important to mention that repetition of initial consonant sounds means that only the sound must be the same, not the consonants themselves. If neighbouring words start with the same consonant but have a different initial sound, the words are not alliterated, as in a Canadian child.

Linguists claim that alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such. Even so, we may not be able to specify clearly the character of this meaning, and the term will merely suggest that a certain amount of information is contained in the repetition of sounds, as is the case with the repetition of lexical units. However, certain sounds, if repeated, may produce an effect that can be specified. Therefore, alliteration is generally regarded as a musical accompaniment of the author's idea, supporting it with some vague emotional atmosphere that each reader interprets for himself. It draws attention to the phrase and is often used for emphasis. V. A. Kuharenko affirms that may produce the effect of euphony (a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing) or cacophony (a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing).

Rhyme is defined as a type of echoing produced by the close placement of two or more words with similarly sounding final syllables . The term "rhyme" can be used in a specific and a general sense. In the specific sense, two words rhyme if their final stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical; two lines of poetry rhyme if their final strong positions are filled with rhyming words (When the cat is away, the mice will play.).

A rhyme in the strict sense is also called a "perfect rhyme". Perfect rhymes can be classified according to the number of syllables included in the rhyme. So I. R. Galperin distinguishes masculine rhyme, i.e. a rhyme in which the stress is on the final syllable of the words. (rhyme, sublime, crime); feminine rhyme – a rhyme in which the stress is on the penultimate (second from last) syllable of the words. (picky, tricky, sticky) and dactylic rhyme or a rhyme in which the stress is on the antepenultimate (third from last) syllable ('cacophonies", "Aristophanes").

In the general sense, "rhyme" can refer to various kinds of phonetic similarity between words, and to the use of such similar-sounding words in organizing verse. Rhymes in this general sense are classified according to the degree and manner of the phonetic similarity. To this belongs assonance that consists in matching vowels (shake, hate); consonance – matching consonants (her, dark); half rhyme (or sprung rhyme) that is a consonance on the final consonants of the words involved; imperfect rhyme or a rhyme between a stressed and an unstressed syllable (den, siren); oblique (or slant) rhyme – a rhyme with an imperfect match in sound (green, fiend) and semi rhyme – a rhyme with an extra syllable on one word. (bend, ending).

We have already remarked that in a perfect rhyme the last stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical in both words. If this identity of sound extends further to the left, the rhyme becomes more than perfect. An example of such a "super-rhyme" is the "identical rhyme", in which the not only the vowels but also the onsets of the rhyming syllables are identical, as in gun and begun. Punning rhymes such are "bare" and "bear" are also identical rhymes. The rhyme may of course extend even further to the left than the last stressed vowel.

The last type of rhyme that we need to mention is the sight (or eye), or similarity in spelling but not in sound, as with cough, bough, or love, move. These are not rhymes in the strict sense, but often were formerly. For example, "sea" and "grey" rhymed in the early eighteenth century, though no they would make at best an eye rhyme.

The preceding classification is based on the nature of the rhyme; but we may also classify rhymes according to their position in the verse. Consequently linguists distinguish: tail rhyme (or end) that is a rhyme in the final syllable(s) of a verse (the most common kind); internal rhyme that consists in rhyming of a word at the end of the line with a word in the interior of the line. A specific kind of rhyme represents holorhyme. It is a rhyme by which not just two individual words, but two entire lines rhyme (For I scream/For ice cream).

Rhyme is used to produce sounds that appeal to the ear and to unify and establish a poem's stanzaic form.

In connection with rhyme we would like to mention metre (also meter) can be defined as the a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables within a line of a poem. I. R. Galperin defines it as any form of periodicity in verse, its kind being determined by the character and number of syllables of which it consists. The meter is an ideal phenomenon characterized by its regularity, consistency and unchangeability.

2.2. LEXICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES

Lexical stylistic devices are such type of denoting phenomena that serves to create additional expressive, evaluative, subjective connotations. Stylistic phenomena effected by various shifts of meanings are also termed “figures of speech” . These are forms of expression used to convey meaning or heighten effect, often by comparing or identifying one thing with another that has a meaning or connotation familiar to the reader or listener. An integral part of language, figures of speech are found in oral literatures as well as in polished poetry and prose and in everyday speech. Linguists consider that typical lexical stylistic devices for proverbs are simile, metaphor, personification, and hyperbole.

V. A. Kuharenko defines simile as an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes. The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. As an example we may propose the proverb Curses like chickens come home to roost where the tenor is the word curses and the vehicle is the word chickens.

We consider that it is important to mention that unlike simple comparison, simile set one object against another regardless of the fact that they may be completely alien to each other. This stylistic device gives rise to a new understanding of the object. The properties of an object maybe viewed from different angles, such as its state, its actions, and manners. Accordingly, similes may be based on adjective - attributes, adverb- modifiers, verb-predicates etc.

Similes have formal elements in their structure: connective words such as like, as, such as, as if, seem. At the same time we can point to similes that do not contain the listed connective words, as for example in the statement The snow blanketed the earth is also a simile and not a metaphor because the verb “blanketed” is a shortened form of the phrase “covered like a blanket”.

As we have mentioned earlier there are many proverbs based on similes that form a specific subgenre of proverbs called proverbial comparisons.

Metaphor (from the Greek: meta implying "a change" and herein meaning "to bear, or carry”) is a figurative expression in which something is described in terms usually associated with something else . From the times. of ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another and it is still widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning.

More simple metaphor may be also defined as a direct comparison between two or more seemingly unrelated subjects without using like or as. Therefore a metaphor is an implied comparison, in contrast to the explicit comparison of the simile. In comparison with V. A. Kuharenko, who used the notions of “tenor” and “vehicle”, speaking about simile, I. A. Richards applied these terms to the structure of metaphor. In his opinion the tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle is the subject from which the attributes are borrowed. The corresponding terms to 'tenor' and 'vehicle' in Layoff’s terminology are target and source. In this nomenclature, metaphors are named using the convention "target IS source", with the word "is" always capitalized. More generally, a metaphor describes a first subject as being or equal to a second subject in some way. Thus, the first subject can be economically described because implicit and explicit attributes from the second subject are used to enhance the description of the first (A good example is the best sermon).

Linguists consider that a metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties. Therefore it is better to define metaphor as the power of realizing two lexical meanings simultaneously. Due to this power metaphor is one of the most potent means of creating images.

Metaphors, like all stylistic devices, can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus V. A. Kuharenko distinguishes metaphors which are quite unpredictable, called genuine metaphors and metaphors which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is apparent. Genuine metaphors are regarded as belonging to language-in-action, i.e. speech- metaphors; trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a-system, i.e. language proper, and are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language.

Concluding, we can affirm that proverbs, being a part of the everyday speech, and also being fixed in dictionaries and collections, contain rather the second type of metaphor, i.e. trite metaphors.

Personification is a figure of speech that ascribes animals and inanimate objects or abstractions human traits and qualities. Many linguists consider personification considers personification a variety of metaphor. Thus Shruti Chandra Gupta calls personification “ontological metaphor”, V. A. Kuharenko and defines it as a metaphor that involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects.

In order to illustrate the notion of personification we may point to the following proverb Hunger is the best cook where the the word “hunger” acquired human characteristics. The attributes ascribed to nonhuman beings may include sensations, emotions, desires, physical gestures, expressions, and powers of speech, among others.

Linguists relate personification's treatment of inanimate objects to the figure of speech called the pathetic fallacy; the key difference is that personification is direct and explicit in the ascription of life and sentience to the thing in question, whereas the pathetic fallacy is much broader and more allusive. Another related rhetorical device is apostrophe, this entails not speaking about, but speaking to, a personified entity or an absent person.

One of the last figures of speech that according to linguists’ opinion can be often found in proverbs is hyperbole. Largely synonymous with exaggeration and overstatement, this is a figure of speech in which statements are exaggerated or extravagant (All is fair in love and war.). Shruti Chandra Gupta defines it as a way of expressing the excess or exaggerating a thing to such an extent that it becomes unbelievable. Hyperbole may be used because of strong feelings or to create a strong impression and is not meant to be taken literally. The main aim of the usage of hyperbole is to intensify one of the features of the object in questions to such degree as will show its utter absurdity.

Hyperbole gives greater emphasis but it is important whether both communicants clearly perceive that the exaggeration serves not to denote actual quality or quantity but signals the emotional background of the utterance. If this reciprocal understanding is absent, hyperbole turns into a mere lie.

2.3. Syntactic Stylistic Devices

Syntactic stylistic devices are devices based on any perceptible deviation from the normal and generally accepted structure of the sentence. From the syntactic stylistic devices typical for proverbs are considered to be parallelism and ellipsis.

I. R. Galperin defines parallelism (or parallel construction) as an identical or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession. We can identify the proverb First think, then speak as one that contains in its structure a parallel construction.

V. A. Kuharenko states that parallelism is a purely syntactical type of repetition for here we deal with the reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical "flesh". The same idea is underlined by Ivashkin and other linguists. They claim that pure parallel construction does not depend on any other kind of repetition but the repetition of the syntactic design of the sentence. At the same time they mention that parallelism is often accompanied by the lexical identity of one or several members of each sentence (lexical repetition, repetition of conjunction and preposition – polysyndeton). In this case parallelism serves as a syntactic means of making the recurring parts prominent, more conspicuous than their surroundings. Due to the fact that the same word or phrase is used to begin successive clauses or sentences, the reader's / listener's attention is drawn directly to the message of the sentence.

We may relate this theory with this theory with the two function of parallel construction distinguished by I. R. Galperin . He calls these functions semantic and structural. On the one hand a parallel construction may suggest equal semantic significance of the component parts, one the other hand it may be used in order to give a rhythmical design to these component parts.

Shruti Chandra Gupta identifies the comparative function of the parallel construction. In her opinion due to the fact that the structure of the phrases or the words is almost identical, the reader is made aware of the distinctiveness of the content or its similarity.

Parallel construction is most frequently used in enumeration, antithesis and in climax, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by these stylistic devices. Related to parallelism is anaphora that represents a stylistic device where a word or several words are repeated at the beginning of successive lines, sentences or paragraphs.

Ellipsis, the second typical syntactic device, differs from parallel construction, because of the fact that it deals rather with the completeness of sentence-structure, than with specificities of the arrangement. V. A. Kuharenko defines it as a deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence. We consider important to add that the omitted words are required by strict grammatical rules but not by sense, the missing words being implied by the context. As an example of this may serve the proverb No joy without alloy. The stylistic function of ellipsis used in author's narration is to change its tempo, to connect its structure. The usage of ellipsis in proverbs allows the fact of making them shorter, brevity being a typical feature of proverbs.

All the stylistic devices mentioned above are considered typical by different linguists mentioned earlier, but according to our research there are more stylistic devices contained in proverbs such as antithesis (A bad beginning makes a bad ending.), repetition (A good dog deserves a good bone.), chiasmus (Wise men have their mouth in their heart, fools their heart in their mouth), gradation (A living dog is better than a dead lion.) and others. One of the purposes of our research is to state what are the most frequently stylistic devices that can be found in proverbs and how they are rendered in Rumanian language.

CONCLUSION

Proverbs are pithy sayings characterized by briefness and popularity, folkloric origin, moralistic character. The oral genre of proverbs remained popular in many societies due to such prosodic, grammatical, and semantic features of memorability as alliteration and rhyme, childlike repetitive syntax, and analogical troping across different conceptual domains.

One of the main aims of the present diploma thesis was to establish the common stylistic devices included in English proverbs and to determine how they are rendered in Kazakh.

Linguists claim that such stylistic devices as alliteration, rhyme, rhythm, simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole, parallelism, ellipsis can be considered peculiar for proverbs.

Comparing our results with the stylistic devices considered by linguists typical for proverbs, we observed some differences. Thus according to our research, antithesis that was not mentioned by linguists is one of the leading devices, being used in a lot of proverbs.

Speaking in general lines, less difficult to render are those stylistic devices that are included in proverbs with a common origin such as classic languages. The greatest problems occur while rendering specific English proverbs that bear a national colour.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnold, I. V., The English Word. Manual for Students of Foreign Languages Departments of Higher Educational Institutions, M.: Higher School, 1986.

Constable, Th. L., Notes on Proverbs, 2007.

Dundes, A., Arewa E. O., Proverbs and the Ethnography of Speaking Folklore, 1975.

G. Corpas Pastor, Discoursal Function of Proverbs, Translation Studies, University of Malaga, 1995.

Hernadi, P., Steen, F., The Tropical Landscapes of Proverbia: A Cross disciplinary Travelogue, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1999.

Matti Kuusi, Proverbs and proverbial phrases, 1954.

Mieder, W., Proverbs: A Handbook, 2004.

Mieder, W., American Folklore: An Encyclopedia 1996.

Norrick, N., How Proverbs Mean: Semantic Studies in English Proverbs, Amsterdam: Mouton, 1985.

Rothstein, A. The Poetics of Proverbs, 1969.

Shirley Aurora, The Perception of Proverbiality, Proverbium 1, 1984.

Silverman-Weinreich B., Towards a Structural Analysis of Yiddish Proverbs, 1978.

Taylor, A., The Proverb., Harvard University Press, 1985.

Whiting, B. J., The Nature of the Proverb, 1994.

Winick, S. D., Intertextuality and Innovation in a Definition of the Proverb Genre, 2003.

Galperin I.R., Stylistics, M.1971.

Kuharenko, V. A., A book of Practice in Stylistics. A Manual for Students of Foreign Languages Departments of Higher Educational Institutions. Vinnytsia: Nova Knyga, 2000.

Ивашкин, М. П., Сдобников, В. В., А. В. Селяев, A Manual of English Stylistics. M. 2005.

Белякова, Е. И. Translating from English, СПб.: КАРО, 2003.

Влахов, C., Флорин, C., Непереводимое в переводе, М., 1980.

Виноградов, В. С., Введение в переводоведение, М., 2001.

Комиссаров В. Н., Коралова А. Л., Практикум по переводу с английского языка на русский, М.: Высш. шк., 1990.

Korunets, І.V., Theory and Practice of Translating., Vinnytsia: Nova Knyga, 2001.

Babylon Ltd., Babylon English – English, 2005.

Crowther, J., Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Oxford University Press, 1999.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, 2005.

Flonta, Teodor, English-Romanian Dictionary of Equivalent Proverbs, 1995.

Merriam-Webster Collegiate® Dictionary, Merriam – Webster Collegiate Dictionar, 2005.

Neagu, Manole, Proverbe româno – engleze, Chişinău, 2006.

Soanes Catherine and Stevenson Angus, Concise Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press 2005.

Fergusson R., Dictionary of Proverbs, Penguin Books, 1983

Richard, A., Spears, Ph.D., NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary, NTC Publishing Group, 2000.

Zanne, I. A., Proverbele românilor, Asociaţia Română pentru Cultură şi Ortodoxie, Bucureşti, 2004.

http://www.bartleby.com

http://www.durov.com

http://haldjas.folklore.ee

http://www.letgodbetrue.com

http://www.literaryzone.com. Shruti Chandra Gupta, Tropes and Schemes

http://www.special-dictionary.com

http:// www.wikipedia.org