Etimology

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Тақырыбы The Etymology of English Words The earliest group of English borrowings. Celtic borrowings. The period of Christianization. The characteristic features of Scandinavian borrowings. Norman borrowings. The Renaissance Period. The etymological structure of English vocabulary.

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English vocabulary contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking the language.

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The first century B.C. Most territory now known to us as Europe is occupied by the Roman Empire. Among the inhabitants of the continent are Germanic tribes, “barbarians” as the arrogant Romans call them. Theirs is really a rather primitive stage of development, especially if compared with the high civilization and refinement of Rome.

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Several of the Germanic tribes (the most numerous amongst them being the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the sea now known as the English Channel to the British Isles. There they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts desperately defended their lands against the invaders. Celtic words (Modern English bald, down, glen (лощина), druid (кельтский жрец), bard, cradle(колыбель)Celtic borrowings.

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This century was significant for the hristianization of England. Latin was the official language of the Christian church, and consequently the spread of Christianity was accomplished by a new period of Latin borrowings. Additionally, there were educational terms. It was quite natural that these were also Latin borrowings,The period of Cristianization.

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N orm an F rench borrow ingsFrom the end of the 8 th c. to the middle of the 11 th c. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which left their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call v, take v, die v, law n, husband, window, ill. Some of the words of this group are easily recognizable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk- combination. E.g. sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt. The characteristic features of Scandinavian borrowings. With the famous Battle of Hastings, when the English were defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror, we come to the eventful epoch of the Norman Conquest.

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Administrative words: state, government, parliament. Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison. Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, enemy. Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil. Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e.g. table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, autumn, uncle, etc. 6. The Renaissance Period. In England, as in all European countries, this period was marked by significant developments in science, art and culture and, also, by a revival of interest in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome and their languages. Italian also contributed a considerable number of words to English, e.g. piano, violin, opera, alarm.

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The native element in English comprises a large number of high-frequency words like the articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliaries and words denoting everyday objects and ideas (e.g. house, child, water, go, come, eat, good, bad, etc.). Furthermore, the grammatical structure is essentially Germanic having remained unaffected by foreign influence.

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By the Indo-European element are meant words of roots common to all or most languages of the Indo-European group. I. Family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter. II. Parts of the human body: foot, nose, lip, heart. III. Animals: cow, swine, goose. IV. Plants: tree, birch (ср. р. берёза), corn. V. Time of day: day, night. VI. Heavenly bodies (небесные тела): sun, moon, star. VII. Numerous adjectives: red, new, glad, sad. VIII. The numerals from one to a hundred. IX. Pronouns – personal (except they which is a Scandinavian borrowing); demonstrative. X. Numerous verbs: be (ср. р усск . быть), stand (стоять), sit (сидеть), eat (есть), know.

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The Germanic element represents words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of the main groups of Germanic words are the same as in the Indo-European element. I. Parts of the human body: head, hand, arm, finger, bone. II. Animals: bear, fox, calf. III. Plants: oak, fir, grass. IV. Natural phenomena: rain, frost. V. Seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer ( autumn is a French borrowing). VI. Landscape features: sea, land. VII. Human dwellings and furniture: house, room, bench. VIII. Sea-going vessels: boat, ship. IX. Adjectives: green, blue, grey, white, small, high, old, good. X. Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, drink.  

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It has been mentioned that the English proper element is opposed to the first two groups. These words are specifically English having no cognates in other languages whereas for Indo-European and Germanic words such cognates can always be found Here are some examples of English proper words. These words stand quite alone in the vocabulary system of Indo-European languages: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always.

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