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HormonesHormones

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Where are hormones produced? Hormones are produced by glands Hormones are produced by ductless glands. This means that the hormones which the glands produce passes directly into the bloodstream which then distributes the hormones round the body

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 Some glands are purely endocrine Some glands are purely endocrine glands producing only hormones (e.g. glands producing only hormones (e.g. adrenal gland produces only adrenal gland produces only adrenaline)adrenaline)  There are glands that produce both There are glands that produce both hormones and other secretions. hormones and other secretions.

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 Hormones production must be Hormones production must be balanced to ensure that body balanced to ensure that body functions normallyfunctions normally  After hormones have performed their After hormones have performed their functions, they are eventually functions, they are eventually destroyed by the liver and excreted destroyed by the liver and excreted by the kidneysby the kidneys

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Pituitary gland Plays an important role as a ‘controller’. It secretes a number of hormones, which control the functions of several other endocrine glands. This is why the pituitary gland is often referred to as the ‘master gland’. The pituitary gland also secretes antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Glands and Their Hormonal Secretions Thyroid gland Secretes thyroxine. Thyroxine controls the rate of metabolism and influences physical development. Adrenal gland (medulla) Secretes adrenaline. Adrenaline has wide-ranging effects that prepare the body for ‘fight or flight’ situations. Pancreas Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon that regulate the blood glucose concentration.kidney Hypothalamus An endocrine gland that regulates the secretion of some pituitary hormones. Ovaries (in females) Secretes oestrogen and progesterone. Testes (in males) Secretes testosterone.

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October 28, 2023Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. 8Stimuli Fear, anger, anxiety, stress, etc 1 2How Adrenal Medulla Responds to Stimuli Receptor Hypothalamus stimulated 65 3 adrenal medulla sensory neurone Adrenaline is carried in blood 7spinal cord Adrenaline reaches target organs in various parts of the body. It brings about short-term responses that prepare the body for ‘fight or flight’.8 4

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Effects of adrenaline secretionEffects of adrenaline secretion  Increases blood glucose levels by Increases blood glucose levels by speeding up the breakdown of glycogen speeding up the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver and musclesto glucose in the liver and muscles  Increases metabolic rate (more energy Increases metabolic rate (more energy released)released)  Increases rate of heartbeatIncreases rate of heartbeat  Constricts arteries in skinConstricts arteries in skin  Causes pupils to dilate to enhance Causes pupils to dilate to enhance visionvision  Contracts hair muscles producing Contracts hair muscles producing ‘goose pimples’‘goose pimples’

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Effects of InsulinEffects of Insulin  Secreted by Islets of Langerhans in Secreted by Islets of Langerhans in pancreaspancreas  Secretion caused by an increase in Secretion caused by an increase in concentration of blood glucose above concentration of blood glucose above the normal levelthe normal level

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 Effect(s):Effect(s): – Decrease in blood glucose concentration Decrease in blood glucose concentration by:by:  Increasing the permeability of cell membranes Increasing the permeability of cell membranes to glucose thereby increasing the rate of to glucose thereby increasing the rate of glucose uptake by cellsglucose uptake by cells  Causing the conversion of glucose to glycogen Causing the conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage in liver and musclesfor storage in liver and muscles  Causing an increased oxidation of glucose Causing an increased oxidation of glucose during tissue respirationduring tissue respiration – This leads to an overall increase in the This leads to an overall increase in the utilization of glucose by cellsutilization of glucose by cells

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 Lack of secretion:Lack of secretion: – Glucose cannot be utilized by cells, some Glucose cannot be utilized by cells, some lost in urine => diabetes mellituslost in urine => diabetes mellitus – Muscle cells no reserves of glycogen, Muscle cells no reserves of glycogen, body weakness flows and then loss of body weakness flows and then loss of weightweight – Body oxidizes fats instead of glucose to Body oxidizes fats instead of glucose to produce energy resulting in poisonous produce energy resulting in poisonous substances formedsubstances formed

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 Effects of OversecretionEffects of Oversecretion – Abnormal decrease in blood sugar Abnormal decrease in blood sugar concentrationconcentration – Shock HAPPENSShock HAPPENS – Coma and death may followComa and death may follow

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Diabetes mellitusDiabetes mellitus  A disease where the body is unable to A disease where the body is unable to control its blood glucose concentration control its blood glucose concentration so that it remains within normal limits.so that it remains within normal limits.  Kidneys unable to reabsorb all the Kidneys unable to reabsorb all the glucose, hence some gets excreted in glucose, hence some gets excreted in the urinethe urine

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2 Types of diabetes:2 Types of diabetes:  Type 1:Type 1: – Juvenile diabetes. Inability of the pancreas Juvenile diabetes. Inability of the pancreas to produce insulinto produce insulin  Type 2:Type 2: – Occurs later in life. Overweight people Occurs later in life. Overweight people seem more prone to it. May be due to a seem more prone to it. May be due to a decrease in the production of insulindecrease in the production of insulin by by the pancreas or a the pancreas or a failure of the target cells failure of the target cells to respond well to itto respond well to it . .

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 SignsSigns – Persistently high blood glucose level Persistently high blood glucose level – Glucose in urine after a mealGlucose in urine after a meal – Healing of wounds is slow or difficultHealing of wounds is slow or difficult  TreatmentTreatment – Measure blood glucose concentrations Measure blood glucose concentrations and test urine regularlyand test urine regularly – Watch their diet, take less carbohydratesWatch their diet, take less carbohydrates – Inject insulin into veins (Type 1)Inject insulin into veins (Type 1) – Control intake of carbohydrate (Type 2) Control intake of carbohydrate (Type 2)

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GlucagonGlucagon  Produced by Produced by islets of Langerhansislets of Langerhans when when the concentration of blood glucose the concentration of blood glucose decreases below the normal levelsdecreases below the normal levels  Target organ of glucagon is Target organ of glucagon is LiverLiver  Glucagon increases the blood glucose Glucagon increases the blood glucose concentration by stimulating:concentration by stimulating: – The conversion of glycogen into glucoseThe conversion of glycogen into glucose – The conversion of fats and amino acids The conversion of fats and amino acids into glucoseinto glucose – The conversion of lactic acid into glucoseThe conversion of lactic acid into glucose

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Hormonal & Nervous ControlHormonal & Nervous Control  Both serve as a means of co-ordination Both serve as a means of co-ordination within the bodywithin the body  There are differences between the 2 There are differences between the 2 systems though:systems though:

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