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POSITIVE INTERDEPENDENCE

Positive interdependence exists when students believe that they will achieve their goals if and only if the other members of the learning group achieve their goals. In other words, students believe they ‘sink’ or ‘swim’ together. Structuring positive interdependence results in students sharing resources and providing one another with mutual help and support when working together in small groups. When positive interdependence has been successfully established in the group, group members believe…

1. Each group member’s efforts are necessary for group success (Hence, no one can take ‘a free ride’).

2. Each group member makes a unique contribution to the group because of his/her capabilities, task responsibilities, or roles.

There are several methods that teachers can use to structure positive interdependence.

Common Goals

One way to promote positive interdependence is by setting a goal that students can only achieve if they work together collaboratively. The simplest of these is to tell students that they are required to not only learn the assigned material/do the assigned task but to make sure that all their group members do so as well.

Materials

The way you distribute group materials can be used to promote positive interdependence:

• A simple way of structuring positive interdependence is by providing groups with a single set of materials. If students are required to work together on an experiment/investigation give the group only one set of equipment and one sheet to document their work.

• You can also distribute materials so that each student is in charge of a particular material. For example, if a group of four students are required to learn about the parts of the plant, you can give one group member material on the root, another material on the stem, the third material on the flower and the fourth material on the leaf. They each learn the assigned material and teach it to their colleagues (modified jigsaw).

Roles

Assigning a variety of roles to group members promotes positive interdependence. Different roles help keep students on task, allow each student to be recognized in his or her area of strength, and allow students to develop new areas of strength.

• Academic roles: You can assign group members different academic roles. For example, if a group of three students has been assigned to answer a list of questions you can give one student the role of reader, who reads the questions out loud to the group and explains it. Another student could be the writer, who writes down the group’s answers on a sheet of paper. The third student could be the presenter, who presents the answers to the whole class.

• Social skills roles: You can also assign students social skills roles. For example, one student in a group of three could be assigned as the group’s encourager to encourage each member to contribute his or her ideas. Another student could be the positive feedback giver who gives positive feedback to group members. The third student could be the time-keeper who makes sure the group stays on task and gets the job done.

NOTE: Students do not generally view academic roles and social roles as equally important. They often associate academic roles with greater responsibility. It is important to assign each student in a group the same kind of roles, that is, academic or social. Alternatively, you could assign each group member both an academic and a social role. This helps all students feel empowered and equally valued. In order for all students to be recognized in his/her area of strength and to facilitate the development of new areas of strength make sure to rotate the roles assigned to group members. That is, if student A is reader today, he/she should be the writer tomorrow, the presenter the day after and so on. Refer to Box for a list of different academic and social skills roles.

Rewards

Rewarding groups whenever they reach a goal or when each member completes a specified amount of work is another strategy for promoting positive interdependence. Rewards are appropriate where you can easily calculate your students’ success, i.e. by counting the number of math problems solved correctly.

• Extrinsic rewards should include things that appeal to or are valued by your students, i.e. stickers, certificates, candies, privileges, etc.

• Intrinsic rewards, such as the satisfaction and confidence associated with working together cooperatively, are more powerful than extrinsic rewards.

Start by giving students extrinsic rewards, and eventually try to design tasks that are intrinsically rewarding.

Group Grades or ‘Shared’ grades

Another method of structuring positive interdependence is by giving a single grade to all members of the group. This method is useful when everyone has contributed to the group product.

Here are two ways in which you can use group grades to promote positive interdependence:

• Ask students to conduct a group presentation on a chosen topic and let them know that all group members will receive a single grade that represents the group’s product. Each group member could gather information on the topic. Then one member creates the power-point presentation, another delivers the presentation and yet another answers questions from the audience.

• Collect a single paper from a group that is meant to represent the entire group’s work. For example, if students have been solving and discussing answers to math problems in a group, you can select one paper at random from each group and grade the group based on that paper.

INDIVIDUAL ACCOUNTABILITY

The second essential element of cooperative learning is individual accountability. That is, after completing a cooperative activity in a group each member should be able to complete a similar assignment on his or her own. The purpose of cooperative learning is to make each group member a stronger individual learner. Students given a free ride do not become stronger. Individual accountability ensures that all group members are strengthened by learning cooperatively.

Sampling

A simple way of showing students that they are accountable for their group’s work is by calling on individual students at random to answer a question on some part of the work they did in their cooperative learning groups. There are several ways in which individual accountability can be structured within learning groups in your classroom. Do not call only on those students with their hands up! Calling on students at random ensures that each student will have prepared an answer to each question you direct at the class. For example, after having students solve math problems you can randomly pick one person from each group to come up to the blackboard to solve a problem and explain the process and the answer (ensure all students are paying attention to the student solving the problem on the board). You can also circulate through the groups calling on one student from each group to share his or her answers or ideas. Another way is to randomly select one student’s product to represent the entire group

Testing

You can structure individual accountability by conducting regular quizzes and tests that group members must take individually on material learned in their groups. This method ensures that students take responsibility for learning the assigned group material, and gives you an indication of how much each student has learned.

Peer Editing and Teaching

Another simple way of structuring individual accountability is by having students edit one another’s work on content they have learnt in their groups. You can also structure individual accountability by having students teach one another material they have learned in their groups.

Peer editing: Have students discuss and learn how to write descriptive paragraphs in their groups. Then, have students individually write descriptive paragraphs, after which they pair up and edit one another’s work.

Peer teaching: Divide your class into groups. Have each group learn about a particular natural resource. After learning in their groups have each group teach the whole class about the natural resource their group learned.

PROCESSING

The third element of cooperative learning, processing, is when group members discuss and evaluate how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining successful working relationships. The group’s success depends on the extent to which group members reflect (i.e. process) on how well they are functioning as a group. Processing requires group members to reflect on group functioning in order to identify those member actions that were helpful and those that were not, and to make decisions about which member actions should be maintained or altered.

Every cooperative learning group has two main objectives. One is to accomplish the group task or goal. The other, is to create and maintain effective working relationships. Groups tend to focus exclusively on accomplishing the assigned task. To ensure success on future tasks, however, problems in working together must be brought up and resolved. Furthermore, group learning is more enjoyable and productive when group members get along with and appreciate one another. Hence, processing needs to be given just as much importance as accomplishing the task.

Helping your students process

In order to ensure successful processing in your classroom, you should allow groups sufficient time, after a cooperative activity, for processing to take place. Explain to your students the purpose of processing and why it is important. Groups learning for the first time to work together cooperatively often need a set of guidelines to direct their processing. A simple way of guiding group processing is by asking student to do tasks such as…

• ‘List three things that were done by group members that helped the group be successful, and list one thing that could be done to make the group even more successful tomorrow.’

• ‘Think of something that each one of your group members did to make the task more successful. Tell them what it is.’

• ‘Tell your group members how much you appreciate their contributions to the task.’

You may also wish to involve students in whole-class processing, where the entire class discusses and is given feedback. You should have students share examples of what helped the group work well and incidents that occurred in their groups that hindered learning as well as the methods that were used to resolve them. Names do not need to be used, and this will generally make students feel more comfortable. You can then share your observations of their cooperative group work, that is, how well they worked and problems in group interactions that you yourself have observed. Positive feedback is essential as it allows students to reflect on how to be more skillful in the future.

Fig. 5.6

Group processing is where groups discuss and assess their own behaviour as a whole.

Fig. 5.5

Group evaluation of their group

Group Name:_____________________________

Colour in each column to the level of your group performance in doing the group task.

	Used quiet voices	Complimented one another’s ideas	Stayed on task	Checked for understanding
All the time
A lot
Sometimes
A little
Very Little

Group evaluation can also be used to assess group performance on specific tasks such as presentations. Group members must give themselves a group score by discussing and coming to an agreement about how well the group as a whole functioned on a list of selected criteria (Fig 5.6c)

Evaluate your group presentation using the following scale: 1 = Unsatisfactory 2 = Below Average 3 = Average 4 = Above Average 5 = Outstanding 1. Content 2. Organization (Introduction, development, conclusion) 3. Voice loud and clear so all can hear 4. Answers audiences questions briefly and accurately 5. Creativity and originality 6. Equal division of work Total Score:

Fig. 5.6c

Student self-evaluation

Student Name:___________________

I worked ______________________

I could try to _______________ to be better next time.

Signature: ________________________.

Student- self processing of their work in the group

In addition to monitoring and evaluating students yourself you must also get your students involved in monitoring and evaluating their own performance. This method helps students learn how to take responsibility for their own behaviour.

Student Self-Evaluation

Group evaluation of their group

Group Name: _________________

During our group discussion

1. We built on one another’s ideas

never a little sometimes a lot always

2. We synthesized ideas on a topic before moving on

never a little sometimes a lot always

3. We checked for understanding.

never a little sometimes a lot always

We will do _______ the next time to improve

Student self-evaluation

Student Name:___________________

1. I used a quiet voice

never a little sometimes a lot always

2. I complimented my partners ideas

never a little sometimes a lot always

3. I listened to my partners

never a little sometimes a lot always

Fig. 5.4

Individual evaluation involves each student assessing his or her own performance. This can be done by asking students how well they did on the task and what they can do to improve next time (fig.5.4). Younger primary school students can assess self performance on the social skill being learnt by colouring either a smiling face, a sad face, or a neutral face (fig. 5.5).

You can ask older students to rate their own performance on a rating scale with options such as always, a lot, sometimes, a little, never (fig. 5.5).

TEACHING SOCIAL SKILL(S)

Box: Skills That Need to Be Taught
There are plenty of potential social skills and academic skills that can be taught in your classroom. Concentrate on those skills that you feel your students have not yet mastered.
Social Skills are the skills without which a group would be unable to complete the task: Getting into your groups quickly and quietly. Bringing the necessary materials with you Staying with your group until the task is done Talking in quiet voices Listening to your partner(s) Knowing your tasks Taking Turns Contributing your ideas Asking for help when you need it Encouraging others to contribute Complementing other’s contributions Coming to consensus Keeping the group focused on the task Criticizing an idea, not the person who presented it	Several important Academic Skills can only be mastered if students are proficient in using social skills. These skills build a deeper understanding of the material and different points of view. These skills are most appropriate for use with students in class 4 through 11 who have developed good social skills. Supporting your point of view with evidence Providing clarification Building on another’s ideas Paraphrasing another’s idea to show you understand it Analyzing your group’s process Checking for understanding Synthesizing several ideas Evaluating the group’s work

Effective cooperative learning groups require students to use a number of social skills such as taking turns, listening attentively and encouraging others to contribute. Students often do not have these social skills. It is therefore important that teachers begin by teaching the skills and provide students many opportunities to practice them.

Teaching students social skills requires much more than simply listing the social skills on the board and telling students to use them. It requires teaching, practice, encouragement and feedback for students to learn and continue using social skills. Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec (1991) have outlined five major steps in teaching social skills to students. There are:

1. Help students see the need for the skill

2. Ensure students understand what the skill is

3. Set up situations where students can practice the skill, and encourage mastery of the skill

4. Ensure students process use of the skill

5. Ensure that students continue to practise the skill.

Step 1: Helping students see the need for the skill

Why is using quiet voices important?

• Other classes are not disturbed

• Everyone can work well

• We can think

Students must be aware of the value of learning social skills for their current and future development and wellbeing. You can increase your students’ awareness of the importance of social skills by asking students, why they think a social skill is important.

Step 2: Ensuring students understand what the skill is

In order to learn a skill students must understand what the skill is and how to use it appropriately. You can use the following two strategies to make sure students understand and know how to perform a skill.

1. Make a T-chart

You can create a T-chart by asking students to list the kinds of things teachers should hear ‘group members say’ and see ‘group members do’ when they are performing the skill correctly (Box Skill).

Skill: Using Quiet Voices
What I can do Sit close to one another Whisper Lean into the group when talking	What I can say ‘Let’s try and speak softly.’ ‘Let’s use our quiet voices.’ ‘Please remember to speak softly.’ ‘We’re doing a great job discussing quietly.’

2. Role Play

You can have students’ role play the skill. For example, if role playing the social skill “complementing others” you can have one student role play contributing an idea to the group, while another role play complementing the group member who has contributed an idea.

Step 3: Providing students opportunities to practice the skill and gain mastery of the skill

Students need to practice social skills repeatedly to master them. When giving the group a task remind students that in addition to successfully completing the academic task they must also use the social skills, they have learned. You can assign specific roles to group members to promote practice of the skill, i.e. noise controller, encourager, peace keeper, etc.

Step 4: Ensuring that students process their use of the skill

Simply practicing social skills is not enough. Students must process how frequently and well the skills are being used in their groups. To ensure students discuss and give one another feedback about their use of social skills you should provide a regular time for processing. Two to three minutes at the end of each class is sufficient. Also, provide students with a set of procedures to guide student processing

Step 5: Ensuring that students persevere in practicing the skill.

It is crucial that students practice social skills over a sustained period of time in order for them to become automatic actions. You must continue to assign practice sessions give students feedback on how frequently and appropriately they are performing the skill and have them process use of the skill.

FACE-TO-FACE PROMOTIVE INTERACTION

The fifth and final aspect of cooperative learning is face-to-face promotive interaction. The elements of cooperative learning previously described do not lead to effective cooperation in and of themselves. Rather, it is the patterns of student interaction promoted by these elements that ultimately lead to effective cooperation. In other words, cooperative learning requires face-to-face interaction between students within which they promote one another’s learning and success.

Promotive interaction exists when students encourage and facilitate one another’s efforts to complete group tasks, and is characterized by students sharing information and materials, providing one another with feedback, challenging one another’s conclusions and reasoning, motivating one another to achieve group goals, and acting in trusting and trust-worthy ways.

There are three steps to encouraging promotive interaction among group members in your classroom:

1. Provide multiple opportunities and sufficient time for the group to meet. A cooperative group does not appear spontaneously. Rather, it takes time for groups to mature and develop into productive cooperative learning groups.

2. Structure positive interdependence. Positive interdependence creates an environment where group members are committed to one another’s success, thereby facilitating the process or development of promotive interaction.

3. Encourage promotive interaction. This can easily be done by monitoring groups, celebrating and praising group members for instances of promotive interaction.

Monitoring groups

When monitoring students during cooperative learning activities, teachers must place an emphasis on observing and recording specific student behaviours rather than instructing students and intervening in group work. There are several methods teachers can use to observe and record student use of social and academic skills objectively. The checklist, tally sheet and anecdotal record are discussed below and examples provided.

Checklists can be used to note, with a tick mark, the presence of specific targeted behaviours. For example, you can create a checklist of specific social skills or academic skills that students should display when they are working together cooperatively. You can make a simple checklist by drawing a grid listing students' names on the first column and the names of social skills you wish to observe in the following columns. When observing groups tick the skills you observe students using.

Figure: Checklist

Date: ___________________ Activity: _________________
Student Name	Helps the group stay on task	Listens to other group members' ideas	Stays on task
Akbar Karim	
Sajid Khan			
Affan Aslan
Qasim Jalal
Rehan Qasim		
Kashi Sultan
Imran Khan		

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